The Plight of China’s Left-Behind Children

China’s Migratory Workers

China’s rapid economic growth over the past fifty years has generated continuous waves of internal migration. Large-scale urbanization has resulted in the largest migratory movement in modern history of over 150 million workers pursuing upward mobility (International Labour Organization, 2021). However, as workers with families transition from rural livelihoods to more lucrative industrial positions, their ability to care for their children becomes obstructed. Due to contentious housing registration laws migrants cannot gain access to key social resources including public education for their children (Zhu & Qian, 2021). The difficulties of family separation are underscored by a lack of institutional and governmental policies protecting these vulnerable children. The children who remain in their hometowns are officially designated as “left-behind children” (LBC). Totaling approximately 61 million, they account for 38% of all children in rural China (Zhao et al., 2017).

Attachment Trauma

Research into child-caregiver relationships has determined that inconsistent connections can result in developmental, attachment-based trauma. Originally developed by behavioral psychologist John Bowlby, attachment theory considers the influence of parent-child interactions on a child’s internal working model of relationships. Because this model determines their ability to connect with loved ones, it greatly informs personality development and the capacity for building social connections (Farina et al., 2019). Conversely, trauma resulting from disrupted attachment can result in “cognitive impairment, developmental delays, emotion dis-regulation, poor school performance, delinquent behavior, depression, anxiety, suicidal behavior, self-harm, and alcohol and drug abuse” (Finzi-Dottan & Harel, 2014, p. 401) Studies on China’s left-behind children population have observed the presence of these psychological and behavioral problems (Zhang et al., 2019).

In an effort to maintain a connection with their children, migrant parents rely heavily on long-distance communication. This protective factor can help to modulate the intensity of LBC’s psychological and emotional suffering. However, adults occupied with sourcing work and accumulating remittances may not be able to maintain consistent communications overtime. For example, a 2012 study found that LBC adolescents communicate highly infrequently with their parents (Su et al., 2012). Heavy reliance on familial connections can also prove inadequate. For relatives such as grandparents who are physically present, fulfilling caregiver responsibilities can prove challenging due to poor health, old age, or lack of community support (Zhao et al., 2017).

Fostering Resiliency

Fortunately, a variety of alternative protective factors in a child’s immediate environment can help to curb the effects of attachment trauma and foster greater resiliency. These factors include supportive extra-familial relationships, cultivation of positive self-regard, spiritual grounding, self-empowerment, and reclaiming an internal locus of control (Crosson-Tower, 2014). Studies have demonstrated that a single consistent, nurturing adult’s presence can offer a powerful corrective experience and model positive caregiver-child dynamics (Tlapeka et al., 2016). With access to such critical supports, an LBC can improve their mental and emotional coping and learn to cultivate stable, intimate relationships.

Psychologists are also exploring programmatic interventions that can support LBC’s resiliency. For example, a study in 2013 partnered with local officials and organizations in a rural township to develop volunter-based children’s clubs for LBC. Throughout that summer students from nearby universities participated in leading social programs, teaching life skills, providing academic support, and assuming mentor roles. 800 primary school age children attended and 24 LBC participated in in-depth interviews afterwards. Children reported developing deep bonds with the university students and receiving critical emotional support. Others expressed gratitude for friendship-building opportunities (Zhao et al., 2017). The study confirmed the importance of having substitute adult figures that can provide guidance and emotional connection.

Future Research

Research will continue to play a critical role in the development of effective interventions for this vulnerable population. Opportunities for further research include the use of longitudinal studies with larger samples sizes sourced from multiple regions (Lan & Wang, 2019). Also, because the majority of current literature focuses on preschool and elementary age children, future studies on adolescent LBC are needed. In the absence of critical amendments to urban housing registration laws, the focus must remain on the creation of local and governmental aid programs that can mitigate the effects of parental absence.

Sources

Crosson-Tower, C. (2014). Understanding child abuse and neglect (9th ed.). Pearson.

Farina, B., Liotti, M., & Imperatori, C. (2019). The role of attachment trauma and disintegrative pathogenic processes in the traumatic-dissociative dimension. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00933

Finzi-Dottan, R., & Harel, G. (2014). Parents’ potential for child abuse: An intergenerational perspective. Journal of Family Violence, 29, 397-408.

International Labour Organization. (2021). “Protecting and promoting the rights of China’s vulnerable young migrants”. https://www.ilo.org/beijing/what-we-do/projects/WCMS_143208/lang--en/index.htm

Lan, X., & Wang, W. (2019). To be shy or avoidant? Exploring the longitudinal association between attachment and depressive symptoms among left-behind adolescents in rural China. Personality and Individual Differences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109634

Su, S., Li, X., Lin, D., Xu, X., & Zhu, M. (2012). Psychological adjustment among left behind children in rural China: The role of parental migration and parent-child communication. Child: Care, health and development, 39(2), 162-170. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2012.01400.x

Tlapeka, S., Auslanderb, W., Edmondb, T., Gerkeb, D., Schragb, R., & Threlfallc, J. (2017). The moderating role of resiliency on the negative effects of childhood abuse for adolescent girls involved in child welfare. Children and Youth Services Review, 73, 437-444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.11.026

Zhang, X., Li, M., Guo, L, & Zhu, Y. (2019). Mental health and its influencing factors among left-behind children in South China: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-8066-5

Zhao, C., Zhou, X., Wang, F., Jiang, M., & Hesketha, T. (2017). Care for left-behind children in rural China: A realist evaluation of a community-based intervention. Children and Youth Services Review, 82, 239-245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.09.034

Zhu, H., & Qian, J. (2021). New theoretical dialogues on migration in China: Introduction to the special issue. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 47(12). https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1739372